What Kind of Vitamins and Minerals Does a Beef Cow Need
- Introduction
- Macrominerals
- Microminerals Vitamins
- Selecting a Mineral Supplement
- Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
- Bioavailability
- Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
- Copper Deficiency
- Summary
- Literature Cited
Introduction
Beef cattle require a number of minerals for optimal growth and reproduction. Selecting the correct mineral supplement is of import for maintaining salubrious animals, and optimal growth and reproduction. Since high-quality forages and/or grains tin can furnish a large portion of the required minerals, producers should select supplements that will meet animal requirements and avert excesses that reduce profits and lead to unnecessary mineral excretion. Minerals not provided by feed tin can be easily and inexpensively supplied with a simple mineral supplement. A good mineral program for brood cows should cost virtually $10 to $twenty per year. This bulletin provides information on basic mineral nutrition for most provender and feeding programs in Georgia.
Minerals essential to cattle nutrition are classified as either macrominerals or microminerals, depending on whether they are institute at levels greater than or less than 100 parts per million (ppm) in the animal's body.
Macrominerals
The macrominerals beefiness cattle require include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine and sulfur. Macromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beefiness cattle are shown in Tabular array 1.
Calcium and Phosphorus
Calcium and phosphorus are the major mineral components of the skeleton. Ninety-nine percentage of full body calcium and 80 percentage of total body phosphorus are stored in the bones. The skeletal stores of calcium and phosphorus are used to meet short-term dietary inadequacies. Long-term deficiencies of either tin can cause bones to weaken and even pause.
Calcium and phosphorus besides play of import roles in other bodily functions. A decrease in either or both can crusade a decrease in weight gain and/or a decrease in efficiency of proceeds. During lactation, low amounts of either volition reduce milk product. A superior milking moo-cow requires iii times more calcium than a non-lactating cow. A phosphorus deficiency can delay puberty in heifers and can delay mature beef cows from returning to heat post-obit parturition. Cattle also need correct amounts of calcium for the nervous and muscular systems to role properly.
Proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus is affected not merely by the corporeality of each mineral fed, but also by their ratio. The optimum Ca:P ratio is most 1.v:one, with a range of 1:i to four:one beingness satisfactory. In some loftier-concentrate rations, ratios higher than 2:1 have been successful.
Most grasses are adequate in calcium. Legumes such as alfalfa, peanut, clover and soybean hay are skilful sources of calcium, but corn silage and sorghum silage are poor sources of calcium. In general, well-nigh concentrates are relatively poor calcium sources. One exception is citrus lurid, which is relatively high in calcium concentration (1.ix percent). Corn, corn past-product feeds and sorghum grain are particularly low in calcium content, and cattle fed grain or corn silage-based diets require calcium supplementation.
Almost forages are low in phosphorus, particularly belatedly in the growing flavour. Cattle are more likely to exist phosphorus-deficient during the winter, when they often subsist on dry forages. Concentrates comprise moderate to high concentrations of phosphorus. Protein supplements such as cottonseed repast and soybean meal contain moderate concentrations, whereas many by-product feeds such as distillers grains, corn gluten feed and wheat middlings, have high phosphorus concentrations.
Sodium and Chlorine
Sodium and chlorine (table salt) provide for the proper function of the nervous and muscular systems. They help regulate torso pH and the corporeality of water retained in the trunk. A deficiency of these elements causes loss of appetite and inefficient weight gains or body weight loss. Sodium is usually deficient in diets, simply chlorine levels are usually adequate. Both minerals are nowadays in soft tissues and fluids and there is very little storage of these elements, so a abiding, daily source of sodium and chlorine must exist provided. Cattle volition voluntarily consume more salt when forage is immature and succulent than when it matures. Silage-fed cattle will consume more table salt than those fed hay, and consumption is higher in cattle fed high-roughage diets than in those on high-concentrate diets. As a rule of thumb, cattle consume 0.005 to 0.010 percent of their body weight as table salt daily. For example, a mature cow weighing 1,200 pounds would swallow 0.06 to 0.12 pounds (ane,200 ten 0.00005 = 0.half-dozen), or one.0 to 1.ix ounces of salt daily.
Magnesium
Magnesium is essential for proper enzyme and nervous system role and for efficient sugar metabolism. A magnesium deficiency is uncommon except for cows grazing lush-growth fescue or small grain pastures during the tardily winter and early spring, which may cause grass tetany, a serious and sometimes fatal metabolic disorder. A high rate of nitrogen and potassium fertilization contributes to grass tetany. Excess potassium inhibits magnesium absorption in both forage and animals. Grass tetany usually occurs following an extended period of cold weather combined with high levels of nitrogen and potassium fertilization. Mature lactating cows are particularly susceptible to grass tetany.
Grass tetany tin can usually exist prevented by feeding cattle a mineral mixture containing magnesium oxide. A mineral mixture containing x to 14 percent magnesium consumed at iv ounces per solar day should provide adequate magnesium. Adequate salt intake is also important for preventing grass tetany. Avoid using hard blocks to supplement salt when cattle are at risk for grass tetany; supply salt in a loose class to allow for adequate salt consumption. When grass tetany is non a risk, blocks tin can be used to supplement minerals, provided trace minerals are elevated to account for lower intake of cake versus loose salt minerals. Animals with grass tetany reply almost immediately to an intravenous infusion of calcium-magnesium gluconate.
Potassium
Potassium functions in acid-base balance, osmotic pressure level and the amount of water retained in the torso. Grasses, particularly early lush spring growth, contains adequate amounts of potassium for grazing cattle and supplementation is rarely needed. Yet, potassium may occasionally be low in stockpiled forages or hay that was rained on prior to baling because potassium is soluble and volition leach from the forage.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a part of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine, which make up protein. A sulfur deficiency in beef cattle diets is not likely to occur under normal feeding atmospheric condition. Sulfur is more likely to be in backlog, which can interfere with the metabolism of copper, resulting in a copper deficiency. Likewise, excess sulfur can reduce feed intake and cause a brain lesion condition known as polioencephalomalacia (PEM). Certain by-products such every bit distillers grains and corn gluten feed contain higher concentrations of sulfur, which should exist taken into account in ration balancing. Sulfur is often added indirectly to the mineral mix through sulfate forms of the microminerals.
| Table i. Macro mineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beefiness cattle. | ||||
| Mineral | Lactating Cows | Dry out Cows | Growing Calves | Maximum Tolerable Level |
| Calcium, % | 0.31 | 0.18 | 0.58 | — |
| Magnesium, % | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.20 | 0.40 |
| Phosphorus, % | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.26 | — |
| Potassium, % | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.70 | 3.0 |
| Sodium, % | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.10 | — |
| Sulfur, % | 0.xv | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.40 |
| NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Food Requirements of Beef Cattle, 6th Edition. | ||||
Microminerals
Beef cattle crave ten microminerals. Seven of the x microminerals have established requirements, including iron, manganese, copper, zinc, selenium, cobalt and iodine. The microminerals chromium, molybdenum and nickel do non accept an established requirement and are not unremarkably added to mineral mixes fed to beef cattle. Only three of the microminerals (copper, zinc and selenium) are likely to be deficient in grazing beef cattle diets. Micromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beefiness cattle are shown in Tabular array 2.
Cobalt
Cobalt functions every bit a component of vitamin B-12, which is synthesized in the rumen past bacteria. The primary deficiency symptom is loss of appetite and poor growth. Most forages in the Southeast have adequate levels of cobalt; however, information technology is usually added in the mineral mix at approximately 10 ppm to ensure no deficiencies. High-grain diets require more cobalt than provender-based diets, and cobalt should ever be included in the mineral mix when feeding grain-based diets.
Copper
Copper is the almost mutual micromineral deficiency in grazing cattle. Copper is an important component of many enzyme systems essential for normal growth and evolution. Deficiency signs include reduced fertility, depressed immunity and reduced pigmentation of hair (black hair changes to red). Dietary deficiencies tin occur, but nigh deficiencies are caused by the consumption of antagonists, which reduces copper absorption. Copper should exist supplemented as copper sulfate, tribasic copper chloride or an organic complexed course because copper oxide is very poorly absorbed.
Iodine
Iodine is an essential mineral for function of the thyroid hormones that regulate free energy metabolism. The first sign of iodine deficiency is goiter in newborn calves. Iodine is rarely deficient in moo-cow herds in the Southeast. Iodine is usually supplemented as ethylenediamine dihydroidide (EDDI). The maximum legal supplementation of EDDI is 50 mg per head per mean solar day. In some instances, EDDI has been included in diets to prevent foot rot; however, the corporeality of EDDI required to prevent human foot rot is much college than requirements and most probable will not prevent foot rot when included at the legal maximum.
Iron
Iron is primarily required for the formation of hemoglobin. Deficiency symptoms include anemia, depressed amnesty and decreased weight gains. Iron deficiency is rarely observed in grazing cattle. Atomic number 26 oxide is oft included in mineral mixtures, but is unavailable to the animal and serves only every bit a coloring agent to requite the mineral a dark blood-red color. Iron sulfate is available to the animate being and should be used if iron supplementation is needed.
Manganese
Manganese is required for normal reproduction, and fetal and udder development. Manganese deficiency is rare and unlikely to be a problem in grazing cattle in Georgia. Manganese oxide is the most common form of manganese used in mineral mixes. Corn-based diets are low in manganese and supplementation is necessary when feeding these diets.
Selenium
Selenium can be deficient in some areas of Georgia. Selenium deficiency causes white muscle disease (similar to muscular dystrophy) in newborn calves. Selenium deficiency tin can likewise cause calves to be weak at birth and increase their susceptibility to calfhood diseases like scours. Increased rates of retained placentas and poor reproductive performance are ofttimes observed in cows with selenium deficiencies.
Selenium is more often than not added to mineral mixtures in the course of sodium selenite. Selenium is very toxic and should be used in a premixed grade but. The FDA allows selenium to be used at a level non to exceed 0.3 ppm of the dry matter in the full nutrition of beef cattle. In areas where deficiencies occur, apply the maximum legal level. The FDA allows up to 120 ppm to exist included in a table salt-mineral mixture for gratuitous-choice feeding. Selenium deficiency should non be a problem if acceptable amounts of selenium are consumed in the mineral supplement. However, the concentration of selenium in the supplement and the labeled intake must not result in a total intake of more than than three mg per day. Thus, a mineral labeled for intake of four ounces per head per day cannot exceed 26 ppm selenium.
Zinc
Zinc is marginal to scarce in virtually Georgia forages. Zinc is a component of many enzymes and is important for immunity, male reproduction, and skin and hoof wellness. Cattle accept a limited ability to store zinc and supplementation is ever necessary. Zinc absorption is closely tied to copper absorption, and the zinc to copper ratio should be kept at approximately 3:1. In improver, high levels of atomic number 26 tin subtract zinc assimilation. Absorption of zinc decreases once the ratio of iron to zinc exceeds 2:1. Some feedlots feed supplemental zinc methionine to meliorate hoof health and thus improve daily gains and feed efficiency.
| Tabular array 2. Micromineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable Levels for Beefiness Cattle. | ||||
| Mineral | Lactating Cows | Dry Cows | Growing Calves | Maximum Tolerable Level |
| Chromium | — | — | — | 50.0 |
| Cobalt, ppm | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 10.0 |
| Copper, ppm | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 100.0 |
| Iodine, ppm | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 50.0 |
| Fe, ppm | 50.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 1000.0 |
| Manganese, ppm | twenty.0 | 40.0 | twoscore.0 | 1000.0 |
| Molybdenum, ppm | — | — | — | v.0 |
| Nickel | — | — | — | 50.0 |
| Selenium, ppm | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.ten | two.0 |
| Zinc, ppm | xxx.0 | 30.0 | 30.0 | 500.0 |
| NRC, 1996. Adjusted from NRC. Food Requirements of Beefiness Cattle, 6th Edition. | ||||
Vitamins
Vitamins are closely linked to mineral metabolism and assimilation. Vitamin A helps skin and mucous membranes stay healthy. Vitamin A requirements normally are met past grazing fresh, greenish, growing grass. Oxidation deteriorates vitamin A during storage, so diets based on stored feeds should be supplemented with vitamin A. Supplement diets with vitamin A any time the major portion is stored feeds.
Vitamin A can be added to a mineral mix in a stabilized course to prevent oxidation. The minimum amount should be approximately 120,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A per pound of mineral. Vitamin A can besides be added to the grain mixture to provide 15,000 to xxx,000 IU per head per mean solar day, depending on individual requirements. An alternative method is to inject 1.v million IU subcutaneously if a source of dietary citamin A is non bachelor for 60 to 90 days, although unnecessary injections are discouraged in consideration of National Beef Quality Assurance guidelines.
Vitamin D aids the assimilation of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and their deposition in the bone matrix. Signs of vitamin D deficiency are like to a calcium or phosphorus deficiency. Most cattle exposed to direct sunlight synthesize enough vitamin D, but cattle in a covered solitude feedlot may demand supplemental vitamin D.
Vitamin Due east is ordinarily present in the diet in sufficient quantities for all classes of cattle; however, a selenium deficiency could lead to an apparent deficiency of vitamin East. Vitamin E can be helpful for short-term periods of stress that may occur when calves are co-mingled and transported at weaning.
Other essential vitamins are usually present in acceptable quantities in the nutrition or are synthesized past bacteria in the rumen.
Selecting a Mineral Supplement
The average mineral content of several forages, grains and by-product feeds are shown in Tabular array 3. The actual mineral content of feeds, peculiarly forages and by-products, will vary, so all feeds should be tested for actual mineral content. However, the mineral concentrations can be used as a guide when choosing a mineral supplement to complement a particular feed ingredient. In addition, an example mineral mix for lactating cows is provided in Tabular array 4. The calcium to phosphorus ratio in almost mineral mixes should be 2:1 to four:1. Phosphorus supplementation may not be needed if forages accept been fertilized with poultry litter or when feeding high-phosphorus feeds such as cottonseed, cottonseed meal, distillers grains or corn gluten feed. Salt is not stored in the animal's trunk and should be made bachelor continuously. Table salt is the only mineral that cattle require, and table salt-deprived cattle will often swallow dirt or woods. A mineral mix should contain xv to 22 percent table salt. Magnesium should be at least 14 percentage in the mineral mix when grass tetany is a business. Also, closely examine mineral tags for add-on of unnecessary products such as B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid). These vitamins are ordinarily non needed by grazing cattle because they are produced by the rumen leaner and increase the cost of the supplement.
The most of import points to consider when purchasing minerals are calcium to phosphorus levels, salt level, bioavailability (particularly copper), level of "trace minerals" in the supplement, and additives. You can learn a lot almost the mineral you lot are feeding past studying the mineral tag for a few minutes. In addition, minerals are oft used to deliver products such as ionophores (Rumensin, Bovatec) and antibiotics (chlortetracycline, GainPro). Advisedly read characterization instructions when using medicated mineral mixes to ensure adequate intake and to ensure the product is labeled for the intended apply.
Grain-based diets
In that location are many differences between mineral supplements designed for a forage-based versus a grain-based diet. Since grains and about by-product feeds except citrus pulp contain low concentrates of calcium, supplements should comprise approximately 25 percent calcium and be fed at a rate of 4 ounces per day. Supplemental salt should exist provided at i to i.9 ounces per day. The primary microminerals of most concern are zinc, copper, cobalt and selenium. Trace mineral salt is usually added at 0.5 percent of the diet to provide most supplemental trace mineral needs. Selenium may demand to be added to maintain a full diet concentration of 0.one ppm. Additional phosphorus supplementation is rarely required when feeding grain-based diets.
| Table three. Mineral content of commonly used forages and concentrate feeds. | ||||||
| Feedstuff | Calcium % | Phosphorus % | Potassium % | Sulfur % | Copper, ppm | Zinc, ppm |
| Bahiagrass Pasture | 0.46 | 0.22 | 1.45 | 0.21 | 8.0 | xx.0 |
| Bermudagrass Pasture | 0.39 | 0.26 | 1.3 | 0.28 | 9.0 | twenty.0 |
| Bermudagrass Hay | 0.43 | 0.20 | one.61 | 0.21 | ix.0 | xx.0 |
| Fescue Pasture | 0.51 | 0.27 | two.three | 0.19 | 5.8 | 18.7 |
| Fescue Hay | 0.51 | 0.37 | 2.3 | 0.18 | vi.0 | 22.0 |
| Corn | 0.03 | 0.31 | 0.33 | 0.14 | 4.eight | 16.0 |
| Corn Silage | 0.25 | 0.22 | 1.14 | 0.12 | iv.2 | 17.vii |
| Corn Gluten Feed | 0.07 | 0.95 | 1.forty | 0.47 | seven.0 | 73.iii |
| Cottonseed Meal, 41% | 0.xx | ane.16 | 1.65 | 0.42 | 16.5 | 74.0 |
| Whole Cottonseed | 0.sixteen | 0.62 | 1.22 | 0.26 | seven.9 | 37.7 |
| Soyhulls | 0.53 | 0.18 | i.29 | 0.eleven | 17.8 | 48.0 |
| Soybean Meal, 44% | 0.40 | 0.71 | 2.22 | 0.46 | 22.4 | 57.0 |
| Molasses | 1.00 | 0.10 | 4.01 | 0.47 | 65.7 | 21.0 |
| Citrus Lurid | ane.88 | 0.13 | 0.77 | 0.08 | 6.2 | xv.0 |
| NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Food Requirements of Beef Cattle, 6th Edition. | ||||||
| Table 4. Example costless-choice mineral specifications for lactating cows. | |
| Mineral | 4 Ounce Intake Per Day |
| Calcium | x to fifteen% |
| Phosphorus | 4 to 8% |
| Common salt | 15 to 20% |
| Magnesium1 | one% |
| Sulfur2 | 0.five% |
| Copper | 0.12% (1200 ppm) |
| Zinc | 0.3% (3000 ppm) |
| Cobalt | 0.001% (10 ppm) |
| Iodine | 0.008% (80 ppm) |
| Selenium | 0.0026% (26 ppm) |
| 1Magnesium should be increased to at least 10% when grass tetany is a business concern 2Sulfur supplementation is commonly not required, nonetheless it is often added to mineral mixes by the utilize of sulfate forms of other minerals. | |
Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
Decision-making intake at the desired level is very challenging because mineral intake fluctuates. Monitor mineral intake for several weeks prior to implementing direction practices to alter mineral intake. If mineral intake is likewise loftier or low, move the mineral feeder either closer to or farther away from the water source and loafing areas. When cattle are over-consuming mineral, table salt is ofttimes added to reduce the amount of minerals cattle swallow. Common salt level has a significant touch on on mineral intake and is easily inverse to control intake; however, you must account for the boosted salt when determining the correct intake. For example, if a mineral with a recommended feeding rate of four ounces per twenty-four hour period is mixed in a 50:50 ratio with plain white salt, the cattle should consume eight ounces per day. This would supply the cattle with the targeted amount of 4 ounces of mineral plus 4 ounces of added table salt. When nether-consumption is a problem, endeavour adding dried molasses or modify brands to a more than palatable mineral. In addition, proceed in mind that calves can consume significant amounts of mineral and this should be considered before decreasing the feeding level.
If mineral intake is inadequate, try adding a palatable feedstuff to the mix. Feeds such as cottonseed meal, soybean meal, dry molasses and distillers grains can improve mineral intake. Moving the mineral feeder closer to the h2o source can improve intake. In improver, changing mineral brands volition sometimes provide a mineral that is more palatable.
Regularly monitor mineral consumption by keeping a record of animal numbers and feeding amounts to gainsay potential mineral intake problems.
Mineral Feeders
Mineral feeder placement is a very of import part of supplying minerals to the cow herd. Be certain an acceptable number of feeders are available for the stocking charge per unit of the pasture. A rule of pollex is to provide i mineral feeding station for every 30 to 50 cows. The best areas to place mineral feeders are virtually water, in shaded loafing areas and near the best grazing areas. Cheque feeders at least one time a week and keep a clean, fresh supply of minerals present at all times. A adept feeder should keep minerals dry out, be portable and hold up to abuse and corrosion. Open up tubs are non adequate in the Southeast. Because minerals can be corrosive to metals, feeders made of wood, fiberglass or plastic usually last longer. Permanent mineral feeders made of concrete also work well, just portability is a problem.
Supplement Form
Feeding minerals free-choice in a loose mix form is well-nigh desirable for brood cows. For cattle on complete diets, minerals are most optimally supplied when mixed in a TMR. When supplementing in a block course, trace minerals must be college than what is contained in a loose mineral mix, as the animal will usually consume simply 1 to 2 ounces per solar day. In improver, some blocks comprise only trace mineralized salt, which will not see the beast'south requirements for macrominerals such every bit calcium and phosphorus. Carefully read the label on a block mineral supplement to make certain the product contains all needed minerals. Block minerals are sometimes used when supplementing cattle that have not had access to minerals for a long menses of time. In this situation, cattle will greatly over-consume minerals in a loose mix class if given gratis-option access. Blocks can be used for a short period of time to prevent mineral over-consumption. Exercise not supply plain white salt and mineral separately since intake of the mineral will probable be too low because cattle will require only the salt.
Commercial protein and energy supplements are sometimes fortified with minerals. Commercial supplements come in the form of dry out pelletted feeds, liquid molasses supplements, hard molasses-based blocks, or hard-pressed grain-based blocks. It is not necessary to provide a free-pick mineral supplement along with the commercial poly peptide/energy supplement. Feeding minerals in both the gratis-choice mineral and the protein/energy supplement should non negatively affect performance, but it is an expense that could be saved. It may be necessary to just offer plain white salt blocks when feeding the commercial protein/energy supplements.
Season
Mineral intake is normally higher when lush forage is available and lower during the fall or periods of drought. Mineral content and forage digestibility declines with increasing institute maturity. Mature forages are consumed in lower quantity, further reducing mineral intake. Rapidly growing, lush forages accept a higher availability of minerals compared with mature forages. In add-on, mineral content is higher in forages grown on soils with greater fertility. Spring grass is usually well fertilized and highly digestible, which leads to greater intake of mineral from forages and reduced consumption of supplemental mineral during that fourth dimension of the year.
Feeding Method
Stocker calves are sometimes fed a complete grain- or silage-based ration mixed on the subcontract. Thoroughly mixing minerals in mixed rations is hard; only a pocket-sized quantity of mineral is required and it separates easily from the larger particle sizes of grain and forages. Information technology may be wiser to use a mineral supplement that has a higher feeding charge per unit or feed the mineral free-choice or every bit a superlative dress.
A trial was conducted to compare feeding a mineral supplement by free-choice feeding or meridian-dressing the mineral on the feed each day. The mineral contained an ionophore (Bovatec®). Results of the trial, in which heifers were fed hay, corn, corn silage and minerals either in a gratis-choice feeder or where supplemental minerals were summit-dressed (4 ounces per day) on the feed each 24-hour interval, are shown in Tabular array v. Supplementing minerals either free-pick or meridian-dressing resulted in like daily gains. Heifers fed minerals free-selection consumed about 0.5 ounces per caput less than the targeted intake of 4 ounces per day merely were within the range required for the ionophore to be effective. If specific amounts of a detail mineral or feed additive are required per twenty-four hour period, information technology would be desirable to meridian-dress or mix the mineral into the feed every day rather than allow free-choice consumption. When feeding minerals free-choice, closely monitor mineral consumption to make certain intake is adequate. This is of particular importance when feeding an condiment such every bit an ionophore or antibiotic.
| Table v. Performance of heifers provided supplemental minerals either free-choice or top dressed onto feed daily. | ||
| Item | Complimentary-choice | Top-dressed |
| Initial wt, lbs | 574 | 579 |
| Final wt, lbs | 736 | 736 |
| Total gain, lbs | 162 | 157 |
| Daily gain, lbs | 1.93 | one.87 |
| Mineral intake, ounces/day | 3.52 | four.00 |
Bioavailability
Consider the bioavailability of the mineral supplements when purchasing minerals. Bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than bioavailability of oxides. I exception is magnesium oxide, which is absorbed well plenty to be used in beefiness cattle minerals. However, avert mineral supplements that use copper oxide, which is poorly captivated. Iron oxide is also poorly absorbed and is generally used to add colour to the mineral mix. Because of the forages and feedstuffs in Georgia, cattle seldom require iron supplementation, so the add-on of iron oxide should not negatively impact cattle operation and may exist beneficial since atomic number 26 can bind other minerals and preclude their absorption.
Minerals are usually included in supplements in the inorganic form but may besides exist combined with an amino acid or protein and fed in the organic form (referred to as complexes, proteinates or chelates). Minerals that are sometimes fed in the organic grade include copper, zinc, cobalt and manganese with an amino acid or protein. The relative bioavailability of copper, manganese and zinc from different sources is higher compared to inorganic sources every bit outlined in Tabular array 6.
Organic minerals cost more than inorganic minerals; therefore, an increment in performance must be realized to beginning the higher buy price. The response to organic minerals has been variable and they are only recommended in certain situations. Organic minerals accept been effective in increasing the reproductive efficiency of young breeding females nether nutritional stress, or reducing morbidity and mortality of newly weaned calves that are highly susceptible to bovine respiratory disease. For cows, organic minerals are commonly fed from two months prior to calving through breeding. For calves, organic minerals are generally included simply during the preconditioning menstruation. However, zinc methionine may be fed continually during the feeding period to decrease lameness.
| Table 6. Relative bioavailability of microminerals from different sourcesone | |||||
| Mineral | Sulfate-grade | Oxide-grade | Carbonate | Chloride-form | Organic-form (circuitous, chelate) |
| Copper | 100 | 0 | — | 105 | 130 |
| Manganese | 100 | 58 | 28 | — | 176 |
| Zinc | 100 | — | threescore | 40 | 159 to 206 |
| 1Availability relative to that of the sulfate class.Adapted from Greene, 1995. | |||||
Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
A mineral deficiency in cattle is difficult to diagnose and can silently rob profits from the herd. Most deficiencies are related to copper, zinc and selenium, but other mineral deficiencies can occur.
Mineral deficiencies are classified equally either primary or secondary deficiencies. Primary mineral deficiencies occur when cattle consume forages that are deficient in a detail mineral such as magnesium. Failure to provide a mineral supplement is the near common cause of main mineral deficiencies. Primary mineral deficiencies rarely occur in well-managed herds that receive mineral supplements.
A secondary mineral deficiency occurs when cattle consume mineral antagonists, which interfere with the normal assimilation or metabolism of some other mineral. In the example of copper deficiency, cattle are consuming enough copper to meet requirements, simply some other mineral antagonist such as sulfur binds to the copper and prevents it from being absorbed and used by the fauna. Secondary mineral deficiencies are the most common type of mineral deficiency. Accept the following steps to ensure that the problem is due to a mineral deficiency.
- Showtime, rule out other possible causes of poor performance such as disease, found toxins, or inadequate protein and energy in the diet. The commencement sign of a problem in most herds is poor reproductive efficiency. Inadequate body status, due to poly peptide or free energy deficiency, is the most common cause of reproductive failure.
- Monitor mineral intake to ensure cattle are eating the recommended amounts. A recommended intake is usually indicated on the mineral purse.
- Evaluate the trace mineral levels and sources of each trace mineral. Remember that the bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than that of oxides.
- Breed tin besides bear upon the mineral requirements of the cow herd. Simmental and Charolais cattle crave more copper than Angus cattle. Levels may need to exist increased 25 to 50 per centum for these breeds.
- If a secondary mineral deficiency is suspected, then a laboratory analysis of forages must be conducted. In some instances, h2o should be tested if it is suspected that it might be high in fe or sulfur.
- Blood samples and liver biopsies may also be used to assess the mineral status of a cow. Liver samples are a more than accurate indicator of mineral status. These tests are expensive and should be pursued but afterwards the above steps have been taken.
- Enquire for help from county agents, specialists, veterinarians and feed dealers. No ane person knows all the answers and a team approach to solving a mineral problem is often required.
Copper Deficiency
Copper deficiency is an increasing concern in Georgia and other Southeastern states. Copper deficiency causes a wide range of problems such equally poor hair coat, brittle basic, reduced weight gains and a weakened immune system. The Academy of Tennessee reported a copper deficiency in every bit many as 99 percent of alpine fescue forage samples, and increased deficiency in the fall rather than spring. Results of copper concentrations in forages as reported past NRC are presented in Tabular array vii, merely bodily concentrations vary due to soil blazon, fertilization and climate. For best results, test forages and feed ingredients.
I of the most visible signs of copper deficiency is change in hair color. Cattle with black hair will develop a blood-red or gray tint. Cattle with red hair will become more than bleached. Another common problem associated with copper deficiency is lowered immunity. The combination of low copper and high sulfur concentrations in pasture grasses can result in copper existence deficient even in the nearly well managed herds.
Sulfur antagonisms are the near common cause of copper deficiencies in Georgia forages. Results of the NAHMS provender survey indicated that sulfur concentrations were marginal to loftier antagonistic in 79 pct of samples. Iron and molybdenum showed marginal to highly antagonistic levels in 13 and 18 percent of samples, respectively. Sulfur is present in all feedstuffs and is incorporated in some mineral supplements. The nearly meaning sources of sulfur are direct supplementation, sulfur-containing fertilizers, water and energy/protein supplements.
Ammonium sulfate fertilizers are widely available and their utilise is on the rise. In the past, fertilizers contained small amounts of sulfur. Even so, mod methods of fertilizer production have eliminated whatever sulfur contamination. Therefore, sulfur-containing fertilizers are now being used to supply this important food to pastures. In a Academy of Florida written report, bahiagrass pastures were fertilized with either ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate to provide 60 pounds of nitrogen per acre. Ammonium sulfate increased forage yield in one of three years simply increased establish sulfur levels to 0.50 pct. Sulfur becomes a trouble when the concentration reaches or exceeds 0.35 percent. Liver copper concentrations in cows grazing pastures fertilized with ammonium sulfate were considered deficient, but were adequate in cows that grazed forages not fertilized with ammonium sulfate. In addition, utilise of poultry litter equally a fertilizer will also drag fodder sulfur levels.
Simply providing more copper in the mineral supplement may not improve copper status, because as long as sulfur is present in excessive amounts in the forage, copper absorption will be decreased. If sulfur levels are borderline high (0.35 pct sulfur), then it tin be helpful to increase copper concentrations upwards to 2,500 ppm. In the Florida study, even though the cows were copper scarce, no signs of deficiency or poor operation were noted. Many times, copper deficiencies do not show up until calves go sick after weaning and aircraft. In a separate study, cows deficient in copper were able to rapidly replenish their liver copper concentrations to acceptable levels when fed a low-sulfur diet.
Certain energy and protein supplements tin also contribute significant amounts of dietary sulfur. Feedstuffs that incorporate sulfur in antagonistic amounts include corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal, distillers grains, molasses, soybean repast and cottonseed meal. Protein supplements are fed in small amounts, then sulfur concentration is diluted by the rest of the diet. Molasses-based supplements are commonly used in wintertime feeding programs. The University of Florida has conducted studies to examine the upshot of molasses on copper absorption in grazing heifers. The researchers compared a corn-based supplement to a molasses-based supplement. Aggregating of copper in the liver increased by 46 per centum for heifers fed the corn-based supplement, but decreased ix percent for heifers fed the molasses-based supplement. Absorption of other microminerals (zinc, atomic number 26, manganese) was not affected by supplement type.
Most high-sulfur feeds are only consumed during the winter feeding menstruation and should not significantly affect copper status. Cattle are able to utilize copper stored in the liver during the grazing season, which should reduce the problem of depletion during the winter feeding period. Sulfur from pasture and hay is the principal cause of copper deficiency because they are consumed year-around. The only concern for winter feeding is when cattle have been on pastures that are loftier in sulfur or are beingness fed hay that has sulfur levels antagonistic to mineral absorption. Consider feeding low-sulfur feeds during the pre-workout period, especially if your cattle have had health problems in the past when fed loftier-sulfur feeds.
| Tabular array 7. Classification of micro elements in provender relative to their abilities to meet either dietary requirements or cause an antagonistic problem with copper. | ||||
| Microminerals | Deficient | Marginally Deficient | Acceptable | MTCane |
| Aluminum (ppm) | — | — | — | 1000 |
| Copper (ppm) | <4 | 4 to nine.nine | east"10 | 100 |
| Manganese (ppm) | <xx | 20 to 39.nine | e"forty | 1000 |
| Zinc (ppm) | <xx | 20 to 29.9 | e"30 | 500 |
| Selenium (ppm) | <100 | 100 to 199.nine | 200 | 2000 |
| Copper:Mo ratio | <four:1 | 4.0 to 4.v:one | >4.five to 5:ane | — |
| aneMaximum Tolerable Concentration — Source: NAHMS, 1999 | ||||
Summary
Mineral and vitamin diet is vital to overall herd wellness and reproductive efficiency. Calcium, phosphorus and salt are most likely to be the almost limiting macrominerals in cattle diets. Magnesium may be a problem during late winter or early bound, peculiarly in mature lactating cows. Secondary mineral deficiencies are an increasing concern because of increasing sulfur concentrations in homegrown feeds. A clear diagnosis of a mineral deficiency should exist established before making drastic changes in a management or mineral programme. Vitamins A, D and East are the merely vitamins that may be deficient in beef cattle diets. Controlling daily intake is a constant claiming, but several management strategies can be used to ensure proper daily intake of minerals and vitamins.
Literature Cited
Arthington, J.D., and C.Grand. Swenson. 2004. Effects of trace mineral source and feeding method on the productivity of grazing Braford cows. Prof. Anim. Sci. 20:155-161.
Arthington, J.D., and F.Thousand. Pate. 2002. Outcome of corn- versus molasses-based supplements on trace mineral absorption in beefiness heifers. J. Anim. Sci. lxxx:2787-2791.
Arthington, J.D., J.Due east. Rechcigl, G.P. Yost, 50.R. McDowell, and G.D. Fanning. 2002. Effect of ammonium sulfate fertilization on bahiagrass quality and copper metabolism in grazing beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 80:2507-2512.
Gadberry, Due south. 2004. Mineral and vitamin supplementation of beef cows in Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas Extension. FSA:3035
Gill, W., C. Lane, J. Neel, and A. Fisher. 2004. Mineral diet of beef cattle. Univ. of Tennessee Extension. Atomic number 82:1749.
Greene, L.W. 1995. The nutritional value of inorganic and organic mineral sources. Update of mineral nutrition of beef cattle. San Antonio, TX. In: Proc. Plains Nutr. Quango Symp. Pp 23-32.
Hale, C., and K.C. Olson. 2001. Mineral supplements for beef cattle. Univ. of Missouri Extension. G2081.
Mortimor, R.G., D.A. Dargatz, and L.R. Corah. 1999. Forage Assay from moo-cow/dogie herds in 23 states. Fort Collins, CO. USDA:APHIS:VS, Centers for Epidemiology and Creature Health. #N303.499.
Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. 1996. Washington, D.C. National Enquiry Council.
Ward, J.D., J.West.Spears, and Yard.P. Gengelbach. 1995. Differences in copper status and copper metabolism among Angus, Simmental, and Charolais cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73:571.
Status and Revision History
Published on Jan 04, 2007
Published on February 04, 2009
In Review on Jan 05, 2010
Published on February 16, 2010
Published with Full Review on Mar 14, 2013
Published with Full Review on Mar 31, 2017
Source: https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B895&title=Mineral%20Supplements%20for%20Beef%20Cattle
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